Classical music

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Montage of great classical music composers. From
left to right: first row - Antonio Vivaldi, Johann Sebastian
Bach, George
Frideric Handel, Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart, Ludwig
van Beethoven; second row - Gioachino Rossini, Felix Mendelssohn, Frédéric
Chopin, Richard
Wagner, Giuseppe
Verdi; third row - Johann Strauss II, Johannes Brahms, Georges Bizet, Pyotr Ilyich
Tchaikovsky, Antonín
Dvořák; fourth row - Edvard Grieg, Edward Elgar, Sergei Rachmaninoff,
George Gershwin, Aram
Khachaturian

This article is about Western art music from 1000 AD to the
present. For Western art music from 1750 to 1820, see Classical period
(music). For other classical music traditions, see List
of classical and art music traditions.

Classical music is the art music produced in, or
rooted in, the traditions of Western liturgical and secular music,
encompassing a broad period from roughly the 11th century to present times.[1]
The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which
is known as the common practice
period.

European music is largely distinguished from many other non-European and popular
musical forms by its system of staff notation, in use
since about the 16th century.[2]
Western staff notation is used by composers to prescribe to the performer the pitch, speed, meter, individual rhythms and exact
execution of a piece of music. This leaves less room for practices such as
improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation, that are frequently heard in
non-European art music (compare Indian classical
music and Japanese
traditional music) and popular music.[3][4][5]

The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an
attempt to "canonize" the period from Johann Sebastian
Bach to Beethoven as a
golden age.[6]
The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the Oxford English
Dictionary is from about 1836.[1][7]

Contents

1 Characteristics

1.1 Instrumentation

1.2 Form

1.3 Technical
execution

1.4 Complexity

1.5 Society

2 History

2.1 Roots

2.2 Early
Period

2.3 Common Practice
Period

2.3.1 Baroque
music

2.3.2 Classical period
music

2.3.3 Romantic era
music

2.4 20th century, modern,
and contemporary music

3 Significance of written
notation

3.1 Modernist view of the
significance of the score

3.2 Criticism of this
modernism view on the importance of the score

3.3 Improvisation

3.4 Popular
music

3.5 Folk
music

3.6 Commercialism

3.7 Education

4 See also

5 Notes

6 References

7 Further
reading

8 External
links

[edit]
Characteristics

This section does not cite any
references or
sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed.
(September 2009)

Given the extremely broad variety of forms, styles, genres, and historical
periods generally perceived as being described by the term "classical music," it
is difficult to list characteristics that can be attributed to all works of that
type. Vague descriptions are plentiful, such as describing classical music as
anything that "lasts a long time," a statement made rather moot when one
considers contemporary composers who are described as classical; or music that
has certain instruments like violins, which are also found in other genres.
However, there are characteristics that classical music contains that few or no
other genres of music contain.

[edit]
Instrumentation

The instruments used in most classical music were largely invented before the
mid-19th century (often much earlier), and codified in the 18th and 19th
centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an orchestra, together with a few
other solo instruments (such as the piano, harpsichord, and organ).

Electric instruments such as the electric guitar appear
occasionally in the classical music of the 20th and 21st centuries. Both
classical and popular musicians have experimented in recent decades with
electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, electric and
digital techniques such as the use of sampled or computer-generated sounds, and
the sounds of instruments from other cultures such as the gamelan.

None of the bass instruments existed until the Renaissance. In Medieval
music, instruments are divided in two categories: loud instruments for use
outdoors or in church, and quieter instruments for indoor use. Many instruments
which are associated today with popular music used to have important roles in
early classical music, such as bagpipes, vihuelas, hurdy-gurdies and some
woodwind instruments. On the other hand, instruments such as the acoustic
guitar, which used to be associated mainly with popular music, have gained
prominence in classical music through the 19th and 20th centuries.

While equal
temperament became gradually accepted as the dominant musical temperament
during the 19th century, different historical temperaments are often used for
music from earlier periods. For instance, music of the English Renaissance
is often performed in mean tone temperament.
Keyboards almost all share a common layout (often called the piano
keyboard).

[edit]
Form

Whereas the majority of popular styles lend themselves to the song form, classical music can also
take on the form of the concerto, symphony, sonata, opera, dance music, suite, étude, symphonic poem, and
others.

Classical composers often aspire to imbue their music with a very complex
relationship between its affective (emotional) content and the intellectual
means by which it is achieved. Many of the most esteemed works of classical
music make use of musical development,
the process by which a musical idea or motif is repeated in
different contexts or in altered form. The sonata form and
fugue employ rigorous forms of
musical development.

[edit]
Technical execution

Along with a desire for composers to attain high technical achievement in
writing their music, performers of classical music are faced with similar goals
of technical mastery, as demonstrated by the proportionately high amount of
schooling and private study most successful classical musicians have had when
compared to "popular" genre musicians, and the large number of secondary
schools, including conservatories,
dedicated to the study of classical music. The only other genre in the Western
world with comparable secondary education opportunities is jazz.

[edit]
Complexity

Performance of classical music repertoire often demands a significant level
of technical mastery on the part of the musician; proficiency in sight-reading and ensemble playing,
thorough understanding of tonal and harmonic principles, knowledge
of performance
practice, and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom inherent to a given
period, composer or musical work are among the most essential of skills for the
classically trained musician.

Works of classical repertoire often exhibit artistic complexity through the
use of thematic development, phrasing, harmonization, modulation (change of
key), texture, and, of course,
musical form itself.
Larger-scale compositional forms (such as that of the symphony, concerto, opera or oratorio, for example) usually
represent a hierarchy of smaller units consisting of phrases, periods, sections, and movements. Musical analysis of a
composition aims at achieving greater understanding of it, leading to more
meaningful hearing and a greater appreciation of the composer's style.

[edit]
Society

Often perceived as opulent or signifying some aspect of upper-level society,
classical music has generally never been as popular with working-class society.
However, the traditional perception that only upper-class society has access to
and appreciation for classical music, or even that classical music represents
the upper-class society, may not be true, given that many working classical
musicians fall somewhere in the middle-class income range in the United
States,[8]
and that classical concertgoers and CD buyers are not necessarily upper class.
Even in the Classical era, Mozart's opere buffe such as Così fan tutte
were popular with the general public.

Classical music regularly features in pop culture, forming background music
for movies, television programs and advertisements. As a result most people in
the Western World regularly and often unknowingly listen to classical music;
thus, it can be argued that the relatively low levels of recorded music sales
may not be a good indicator of its actual popularity. In more recent times the
association of certain classical pieces with major events has led to brief
upsurges in interest in particular classical genres. A good example of this was
the choice of Nessun
dorma from Giacomo Puccini's opera
Turandot as the theme
tune for the 1990
FIFA World Cup, which led to a noticeable increase in popular interest in
opera and in particular in tenor arias, which led to the huge sellout concerts
by The Three Tenors.
Such events are often cited as helping to drive increases in the audiences at
many classical concerts that have been observed in recent times.

[edit]
History

Periods
of European art music

Early

Medieval

(500–1400)

Renaissance

(1400–1600)

Baroque

(1600–1760)

Common
practice

Baroque

(1600–1760)

Classical

(1750–1830)

Romantic

(1815–1910)

Modern and contemporary

20th-century

(1900–2000)

Contemporary

(1975–present)

21st-century

(2000–present)

Main article: History of music

The major time divisions of classical music are the early music period, which
includes Medieval (500–1400) and
Renaissance
(1400–1600), the Common practice
period, which includes the Baroque (1600–1760), Classical
(1750–1830) and Romantic (1815–1910)
periods, and the modern and contemporary period, which includes 20th
century (1900–2000) and contemporary
(1975–current).

The dates are generalizations,
since the periods overlapped and the categories are somewhat arbitrary. For
example, the use of counterpoint and fugue, which is considered
characteristic of the Baroque era, was continued by Haydn, who is
classified as typical of the Classical period. Beethoven, who is
often described as a founder of the Romantic period, and Brahms, who is
classified as Romantic, also used counterpoint and fugue, but other
characteristics of their music define their period.

The prefix neo is used to describe a 20th century or contemporary
composition written in the style of an earlier period, such as Classical or
Romantic. Stravinsky's Pulcinella, for
example, is a neoclassical
composition because it is stylistically similar to works of the Classical
period.

[edit]
Roots

Main article: Ancient music

The roots of Western classical music lie in early Christian liturgical music,
and its influences date back to the Ancient Greeks.
Development of individual tones and scales was done by ancient Greeks such as Aristoxenus and Pythagoras.[9]
Pythagoras created a tuning system and helped to codify musical notation.
Ancient Greek instruments such as the aulos (a reed
instrument) and the lyre (a
stringed instrument similar to a small harp) eventually led to the modern-day
instruments of a classical orchestra.[10]
The antecedent to the early period was the era of ancient music from before
the fall of the Roman
Empire (476 AD). Very little music survives from this time, most of it from
Ancient Greece.

[edit]
Early Period

A musician plays the vielle in a fourteenth-century Medieval manuscript.

The chanson Belle, bonne, sage by Baude Cordier, an Ars
subtilior piece included in the Chantilly
Codex.

Johannes Ockeghem,
Kyrie "Au travail suis," excerpt.

Main articles: Medieval music and Renaissance
music

See also: List of Medieval
composers and List of
Renaissance composers

The Medieval period includes music from after the fall of Rome to about 1400.
Monophonic
chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian Chant, was the
dominant form until about 1100.[11]
Polyphonic
(multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, including the
more complex voicings of motets. The Renaissance period was
from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use of instrumentation,
multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of the first bass
instruments. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms
appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize.

It is in this time that the notation of music on a staff and other elements
of musical notation
began to take shape.[12]
This invention made possible the separation of the composition of a
piece of music from its transmission; without written music, transmission
was oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With a musical score, a work of
music could be performed without the composer's presence.[11]
The invention of the movable-type printing press in the
15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission
of music.[13]

Typical stringed instruments of the Early Period include the harp, lute, vielle, and psaltery, while wind
instruments included the flute
family (including recorder),
shawm (an early member of the
oboe family), trumpet, and the bagpipe. Simple pipe
organs existed, but were largely confined to churches, although there were
portable varieties.[14]
Later in the period, early versions of keyboard instruments
like the clavichord and harpsichord began to appear.
Stringed instruments such as the viol had emerged by the 16th
century, as had a wider variety of brass and reed instruments. Printing enabled
the standardization of descriptions and specifications of instruments, as well
as instruction in their use.[15]

[edit]
Common Practice
Period

The Common
Practice Period is when many of the ideas that make up western classical
music took shape, standardized, or were codified. It began with the Baroque era,
running from roughly 1600 to the middle of the 18th century. The Classical era
followed, ending roughly around 1820. The Romantic era ran through the 19th
century, ending about 1910.

[edit]
Baroque music

Baroque instruments including hurdy gurdy, harpsichord, bass viol, lute, violin, and baroque
guitar.

Main article: Baroque music

See also: List of Baroque
composers

Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal counterpoint and the use of
a basso continuo, a
continuous bass line. The beginnings of the sonata form took shape in
the canzona, as did a more
formalized notion of theme and
variations. The tonalities of major and minor as means
for managing dissonance and chromaticism in music took
full shape.[16]

During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the harpsichord and pipe organ became
increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed
instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama
began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal
forms like the cantata and oratorio became more
common.[17]
Instrumental ensembles began to distinguish and standardize by size, giving rise
to the early orchestra for
larger ensembles, with chamber music being
written for smaller groups of instruments where parts are played by individual
(instead of massed) instruments. The concerto as a vehicle for solo
performance accompanied by an orchestra became widespread, although the
relationship between soloist and orchestra was relatively simple. The theories
surrounding equal
temperament began to be put in wider practice, especially as it enabled a
wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments.
Although Bach did not use equal temperament, as a modern piano is generally
tuned, changes in the temperaments from the meantone system, common at the time,
to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys musically
acceptable, made possible Bach's Well-Tempered
Clavier.[18]

[edit]
Classical period
music

Joseph Haydn (1732 - 1809)
ca. 1770.

Main article: Classical period
(music)

See also: List of
Classical era composers

The Classical period, from about 1750 to 1820, established many of the norms
of composition, presentation, and style, and was also when the piano became the predominant
keyboard instrument. The basic forces required for an orchestra became
somewhat standardized (although they would grow as the potential of a wider
array of instruments was developed in the following centuries). Chamber music
grew to include ensembles with as many as 8-10 performers for serenades. Opera continued to
develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking
lands. The opera
buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The symphony came into its own as a
musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of
virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord (which had been
part of the traditional continuo in the Baroque style), and were often
led by the lead violinist (now called the concertmaster).[19]

Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical period. While double
reeded instruments like the oboe and bassoon became somewhat
standardized in the Baroque, the clarinet family of single reeds was not widely
used until Mozart expanded
its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.

[edit]
Romantic era music

Main article: Romantic music

See also: List of Romantic
composers

The music of the Romantic era, from roughly the second decade of the 19th
century to the early 20th century, was characterized by increased attention to
an extended melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements,
paralleling romanticism
in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era forms
(even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces like nocturnes, fantasias, and preludes being written
where accepted ideas about the exposition and development of themes were ignored
or minimized.[20]
The music became more chromatic, dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions
(with respect to accepted norms of the older forms) about key signatures
increasing.[21]
The art song (or
Lied) came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales of grand opera, ultimately
transcended by Richard
Wagner's Ring cycle.[22]

In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy
patrons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the
nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout
western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching,
performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern
construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in metallurgy) became widely
popular with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred a large
number of piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this
era.[21]
Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like Franz Liszt and Niccolò Paganini,
fulfilled both roles.[23]

The family of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew. A wider array
of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger
roles, as the introduction of rotary valves made it
possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra
(typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100.[21]
Gustav Mahler's 1906
Symphony No.
8, for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and
choirs of over 400.

European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion
into other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end
of the era, of nationalism in music
(echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of the time), as composers such as
Edvard Grieg, Nikolai
Rimsky-Korsakov, and Antonín
Dvořák echoed traditional music of their homelands in their
compositions.[24]

[edit]
20th
century, modern, and contemporary music

Igor Stravinsky and Pablo Picasso collaborated
on Pulcinella in
1920.

Main articles: 20th-century
classical music, Contemporary
classical music, and 21st-century
classical music

See also: List
of 20th-century classical composers by birth date and List
of 21st-century classical composers

Modernism (1905–1985)
marked a period when many composers rejected certain values of the common
practice period, such as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and
structure. Composers, academics, and musicians developed extensions of music theory and technique.
20th century classical music, encompassing a wide variety of post-Romantic
styles composed through the year 1999, includes late Romantic, Modern and
Postmodern styles of composition. The term "contemporary music" is sometimes
used to describe music composed in the late 20th century through to the present
day.

[edit]
Significance of
written notation

[edit]
Modernist view of the significance of the score

Modernist views hold that: Classical music is considered primarily a
written musical tradition, preserved in music
notation, as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or by recordings
of particular performances. While there are differences between particular
performances of a classical work, a piece of classical music is generally held
to transcend any interpretation of
it. The use of musical notation is an effective method for transmitting
classical music, since the written music contains the technical instructions for
performing the work. The written score, however, does not usually contain
explicit instructions as to how to interpret the piece in terms of production or
performance, apart from directions for dynamics, tempo and expression (to a
certain extent); this is left to the discretion of the performers, who are
guided by their personal experience and musical education, their knowledge of
the work's idiom, and the accumulated body of historic performance
practices.

[edit]
Criticism of this modernism view on the importance of the
score

Some critics express the opinion that it is only from the mid 19th century,
but esp. in the 20th century that the score has begun to hold such a high
significance. Previously improvisation, rhythmic flexibility, improvisatory
deviation from the score and oral tradition of playing was integral to style of
music. Yet in the 20th century this oral tradition and passing on of stylistic
features within classical music no longer exists. Instead musicians use the
score to play music, yet even given the score, there is considerable controversy
about how to perform the works. Some of this controversy relates to the fact
that this score-centric approach has led to performing styles that emphasize
metrically strict block-rhythms (just as the music is notated in the score).
This eventually led Sol
Babitz to speak of "sewing machine Bach".

Some quotes that highlight this criticism of modernist overvaluing of the
score:

[...]one of the most stubborn modern misconceptions concerning baroque
music is that a metronomic regularity was intended (Baroque Interpretation
in Grove
5th edition by Robert
Donington)

Too many teachers, conditioned to 20th Century ideas, teach Bach and
other Baroque music exactly the wrong way. This leads to what musicologist Sol
Babitz calls "sewing machine Bach."[25]

[...] tendency to look alike, sound alike and think alike. The
conservatories are at fault and they have been at fault for many years now.
Any sensitive musician going around the World has noted the same thing. The
conservatories, from Moscow and Leningrad to Juilliard, Curtis and Indiana,
are producing a standardized product.
[...] clarity, undeviating rhythm,
easy technique, "musicianship". I put the word musicianship in quotes, because
as often as not, it is a false kind of musicianship - a musicianship that sees
the tree and not the forest, that takes care of the detail but ignores the big
picture; a musicianship that is tied to the printed note rather than to
emotional meaning of a piece.
The fact remains that there is a dreadful
uniformity today and also an appalling lack of knowledge about the culture and
performance traditions of the past. (Music Schools Turning out Robots?[25]
by Harold C. Schonberg)

[edit]
Improvisation

Improvisation once
played an important role in classical music. A remnant of this improvisatory
tradition in classical music can be heard in the cadenza, a passage found mostly
in concertos and solo works, designed to allow skilled performers to exhibit
their virtuoso skills on the instrument. Traditionally this was improvised by
the performer; however, it is often written for (or occasionally by) the
performer beforehand. Improvisation is also an important aspect in authentic
performances of operas of Baroque era and of bel canto (especially operas of Vincenzo Bellini), and
is best exemplified by the da capo aria, a form by
which famous singers typically perform variations of the thematic matter of the
aria in the recapitulation section ('B section' / the 'da capo' part). An
example is Beverly
Sills' complex, albeit pre-written, variation of Da tempeste il legno
infranto from Händel's Giulio Cesare.

Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain
classical works, has led to the expectation that performers will play a work in
a way that realizes in detail the original intentions of the composer. During
the 19th century the details that composers put in their scores generally
increased. Yet the opposite trend — admiration of performers for new
"interpretations" of the composer's work — can be seen, and it is not unknown
for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the
original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical
performers often achieve very high reputations for their musicianship, even if
they do not compose themselves. Generally however, it is the composers who are
remembered more than the performers.

Another consequence of the primacy of the composer's written score is that
this has led to the state, where today improvisation plays a relatively minor
role in classical music, in sharp contrast to musicians who lived during the
baroque, classical and romantic era. Improvisation in classical music
performance was common during both the Baroque era and in the nineteenth, yet
lessened strongly during the 2nd half of the 19th and in the 20th centuries.
Recently the performance of such music by modern classical musicians has been
enriched by a revival of the old improvisational practices. During the classical
period, Mozart and Beethoven often improvised the cadenzas to their piano
concertos (and thereby encouraged others to do so), but they also provided
written cadenzas for use by other soloists. In opera, the practice of singing
strictly by the score i.e. come scritto, is famously propagated by Maria Callas, who called
this practice 'straitjacketing' and implied that it allows the intention of the
composer to be understood better, especially during studying the music for the
first time.

[edit]
Popular music

Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular
music of the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms'
use of student drinking songs in his Academic Festival
Overture, genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's The Threepenny
Opera, and the influence of jazz on early- and mid-20th century
composers including Maurice
Ravel, exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin
and piano.[26]
Certain postmodern, minimalist and postminimalist classical
composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.[27]

There are numerous examples of influence in the opposite direction, including
popular songs based on classical music, the use to which Pachelbel's
Canon has been put since the 1970s, and the musical crossover phenomenon,
where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena.[28]

[edit]
Folk music

Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by
musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral
tradition). Some composers, like Dvořák and
Smetana,[29]
have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others
(like Bartók) have used
specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins.[30]

[edit]
Commercialism

Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in
advertising or in movie soundtracks). In television commercials, several
passages have become clichéd, particularly the opening of Richard Strauss' Also
sprach Zarathustra (made famous in the film 2001: A Space
Odyssey) and the opening section "O Fortuna" of Carl Orff's Carmina
Burana; other examples include the Dies Irae from the Verdi Requiem, Edvard Grieg's In the Hall
of the Mountain King from Peer Gynt, the opening
bars of Beethoven's Symphony No.
5, Wagner's Ride of the Valkyries from Die Walküre, Rimsky-Korsakov's Flight of the
Bumblebee, and excerpts of Aaron Copland's Rodeo.

Similarly, movies and television often revert to standard, clichéd snatches of
classical music to convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard
pieces in this category include Mozart's Eine kleine
Nachtmusik, Vivaldi's Four
Seasons, Mussorgsky's "A Night on Bald
Mountain", and Rossini's "William Tell" (The work's
Overture).

[edit]
Education

Main article: Music education

Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive
classical music training from a young age. Some parents pursue music lessons for
their children for social reasons or in an effort to instill a sense of
self-discipline.[citation
needed] Some believe that knowledge of important works of
classical music is part of a good general education.

During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what
came to be called the "Mozart effect": an
observed temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of
listening to Mozart's works. The approach has been popularized in a book by Don
Campbell, and is based on an experiment published in Nature suggesting
that listening to Mozart temporarily boosted students' IQ by 8 to 9 points.[31]
This popularized version of the theory was expressed succinctly by a New York
Times music columnist: "researchers... have determined that listening to
Mozart actually makes you smarter."[32]
Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law
requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day,
and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 per year to provide every
child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the
co-authors of the original studies of the Mozart effect commented "I don't think
it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences.
But I do think the money could be better spent on music education
programs."[33]

[edit]
See also

Classical music
portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Classical
music

List of
classical music styles

List of
classical music composers

American
classical music

Australian
classical music

Canadian
classical music

French
classical music

Indian
classical music

Italian
classical music

Classical
music of the United Kingdom

[edit]
Notes

^ a
b
"Classical", The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Music, ed. Michael
Kennedy, (Oxford, 2007), Oxford Reference Online. Retrieved 23 July
2007.

^ Chew,
Geffrey & Rastall, Richard. "Notation, §III, 1(vi): Plainchant:
Pitch-specific notations, 13th–16th centuries", Grove
Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed July 23 2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).

^ Malm,
W.P./Hughes, David W.. "Japan, §III, 1: Notation systems: Introduction", Grove
Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed July 23 2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).

^ IAN
D. BENT, DAVID W. HUGHES, ROBERT C. PROVINE, RICHARD RASTALL, ANNE KILMER.
"Notation, §I: General", Grove
Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed July 23 2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).

^
Middleton, Richard. "Popular music, §I, 4: Europe & North America: Genre,
form, style", Grove
Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed July 23 2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).

^
Rushton, Julian, Classical Music, (London, 1994), 10

^
The Oxford English Dictionary (2007). "classical, a.". The OED Online. http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50040930?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=classical&first=1&max_to_show=10. Retrieved 2007-05-10.

^
Chesky, Kris S; Stephen Corns (2007). "Income From Music Performance: Does Attending College Make
Cents?". Reports of Research in Music Education (University of
Texas at Austin: Texas Music Educators Association). http://www.tmea.org/080_College/Research/che1999.pdf.

^
Grout, p.
28

^ Grout
(1988)

^ a
b
Grout, pp.
75-76

^
Grout, p.
61

^
Grout, pp.
175-176

^
Grout, pp.
72-74

^
Grout, pp.
222-225

^
Grout, pp.
300-332

^
Grout, pp.
341-355

^
Grout, p.
378

^
Grout, p.
463

^
Swafford,
p. 200

^ a
b
c
Swafford,
p. 201

^
Grout, pp.
595-612

^
Grout, p.
543

^
Grout, pp.
634,641-2

^ a
b
Music Schools Turning out Robots? by Harold C. Schonberg;
Daytona Beach Morning Journal - Oct 19, 1969

^
Kelly, Barbara. L. "Ravel, Maurice, §3: 1918–37", Grove
Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed July 23 2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).

^ See,
for example, Siôn, Pwyll Ap. "Nyman, Michael", Grove
Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed July 23 2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).

^
Notable examples are the Hooked on
Classics series of recordings made by the Royal
Philharmonic Orchestra in the early 1980s and the classical crossover
violinists Vanessa Mae and Catya Maré.

^
Yeomans, David (2006). Piano Music of the Czech
Romantics: A Performer's Guide. Indiana University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0253218454.

^
Stevens, Haley; Gillies, Malcolm (1993). The
Life and Music of Béla Bartók. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 129. ISBN 0198163495.

^ Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'? Nature
400 (1999-08-26): 827.

^
Ross, Alex. "CLASSICAL VIEW; Listening To Prozac... Er, Mozart", New York Times,
1994-08-28. Retrieved on 2008-05-16.

^
Goode, Erica. "Mozart for Baby? Some Say, Maybe Not", New
York Times, 1999-08-03. Retrieved on 2008-05-16.

[edit]
References

Lebrecht, Norman (1996). When
the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical
Music. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780671010256.

Grout, Donald Jay (1973). A
History of Western Music. Norton. ISBN 0393094162.

Grout, Donald J.; Palisca, Claude
V. (1988). A History of Western Music. Norton. ISBN 9780393956276.

Swafford, Jan (1992). The
Vintage Guide to Classical Music. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-72805-8.

[edit]
Further reading

Copland, Aaron;(1957) - What to listen for in music. McGraw
Hill.-10: 7018981026 (paperback).

Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996) - A History of Western
Music, Fifth Edition. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN
0-393-96904-5 (hardcover).

Hanning, Barbara
Russano; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev. 2009) - Concise History of
Western Music. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN
0-393-92803-9 (hardcover).

Johnson, Julian (2002). Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and
Musical Value. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-514681-6.

Kamien, Roger (2008) - Music: An Appreciation Sixth Brief Edition
ISBN
978-0-07-340134-8

Lihoreau, Tim; Fry, Stephen (2004) -
Stephen
Fry's Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music. Boxtree. ISBN
978-0-7522-2534-0

Scholes, Percy Alfred; Arnold, Denis (photographer) (1988) - The New
Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-311316-3 (paperback).

Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev. Paperback version 2009) - Oxford History
of Western Music. Oxford University Press (USA). ISBN
978-0-19-516979-9 (Hardback), ISBN
978-0-19-538630-1 (Paperback)

[edit]
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