Educational psychology

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Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational
settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of
teaching, and the social psychology of
schools as organizations. Educational
psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on
subgroups such as gifted children and those subject
to specific disabilities. Although the
terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used
interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified in the US
and Canada as educational
psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings
are identified as school
psychologists. This distinction is however not made in the UK, where the
generic term for practitioners is "educational psychologist".

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship
with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a
relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology.
Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within
educational studies, including instructional
design, educational
technology, curriculum development, organizational
learning, special education and
classroom
management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and
the learning sciences. In
universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within
faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of
educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.[1]

Contents

1 Social, moral and cognitive
development

2 Individual differences and
disabilities

3 Learning and
cognition

3.1 Behavioral
perspective

3.2 Cognitive
perspective

3.3 Developmental
perspective

3.4 Social cognitive
perspective

3.5 Constructivist
perspective

4 Motivation

5 Research
methodology

5.1 Quantitative
methods

5.2 Qualitative
methods

6 Applications in
instructional design and technology

7 Applications in
teaching

8 History

9 Careers in educational
psychology

9.1 Education and
training

9.2 Employment
outlook

10 Research
journals

11 See also

12 References

13 External links

13.1 Careers

13.2 Textbooks

[edit]
Social,
moral and cognitive development

An abacus provides concrete
experiences for learning abstract concepts.

To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age,
educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development.
Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature,
developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles,
moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.

For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional
applicability of Jean Piaget's theory
of development, according to which children mature through four stages of
cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of
abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore
younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples.
Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract
logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be
able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete
thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring
contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding
through a self-regulatory process.[2]

Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which
children progress from a naïve understanding of morality based on behavior and
outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of
moral development were elaborated by Kohlberg into a stage
theory of moral development. There is evidence that the moral reasoning
described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For
example, other factors such as modeling (as
described by the social
cognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying.

Rudolf Steiner's model of
child development
interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development[3]
in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.[4]

Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between
qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate
dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs
(beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in
people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability,
and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more
sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and
maturity.[5]

[edit]
Individual
differences and disabilities

An example of an item from a cognitive abilities
test

Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and
challenges that result from predisposition, learning and development. These
manifest as individual differences in intelligence, creativity,
cognitive style, motivation
and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The
most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability,
dyslexia, and
speech disorder. Less
common disabilities include mental retardation,
hearing impairment,
cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.[2]

Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since
Plato, intelligence
testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the
development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of
intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general
intelligence,[6]
multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of
multiple intelligences[7]),
or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such
as the Stanford-Binet IQ
test and the WISC[8]
are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need
of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with
accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be
provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological
awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits
are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness and
hope attaining
superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past
performance.[9]

[edit]
Learning and
cognition

Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that
students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can
apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions
accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the
knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years
and long term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of
mastery.[10]
One study found that university students who took a child development course and
attained high grades showed, when tested 10 years later, average retention
scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed
average retention scores of about 20%.[11]
There is much less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge
acquired in school transfers to tasks
encountered outside formal educational settings, and how such transfer
occurs.[12]
Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of far
transfer is scarce,[13][14]
while others claim there is abundant evidence of far transfer in specific
domains.[15]
Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning
used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include behaviorism, cognitivism, social cognitive
theory, and constructivism.
This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied
theories within each of these perspectives.

[edit]
Behavioral
perspective

Applied behavior
analysis, a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of operant
conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings.[16]
For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding
students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable
for sundry items.[17][18]
Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in
education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination
theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic
motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic
motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high
level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.[19]
But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence
that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a
gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic
motivation.[20][21]
Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior
analysis, including pivotal response
therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders.

[edit]
Cognitive
perspective

Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more
widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally
related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions. Cognitive theories
claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed,
stored, retrieved and forgotten.
Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate
but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio's dual coding theory.
Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to
explain how people learn from multimedia presentations.[22]

Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and
Glover[23]
demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one
week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings
(massed).

The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by
psychological research, has broad applicability within education.[24]
For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge
about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than
immediate (see figure).[23]
Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of
other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and
delayed retention of information.[25]

Problem solving,
regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning, is an
important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to
interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved
from long term memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the
student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem
that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.[26]
The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing
schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem
solving.

[edit]
Developmental
perspective

Main article: Neo-Piagetian
theories of cognitive development

Developmental psychology, and especially the psychology of cognitive
development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so
because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a
number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development
defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development.
Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills which are
compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at
different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence
provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate,
which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be
taught at different school grades. This is the reason why Piaget's theory of
cognitive development was so influential for education, especially
mathematics and science education.[27]
In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian
theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to the concerns
above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the
processing and working memory capacities
that characterize successive age levels.[28][29]

Second, the psychology of cognitive development involves understanding how
cognitive change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which
enable cognitive competence to develop. Education also capitalizes on cognitive
change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching
methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of
understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or mental actions
vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions
to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few
examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate
learning.[29][30]

Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual
differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their
rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying
intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because
knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive
development, such as processing and representational capacity,
self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of
understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would
enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no
one is left behind.[31][32]

[edit]
Social cognitive
perspective

Main article: Social cognitive
theory

Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral,
cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational
psychologist Albert Bandura. In its
earlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called social learning theory,
Bandura emphasized the process of observational
learning in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing
others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors
that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive
change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived
prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model,
the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals,
and the learner's self-efficacy. The concept
of self-efficacy, which played an important role in later developments of the
theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to perform the
modeled behavior.

An experiment by Schunk and
Hanson,[33]
that studied grade 2 students who had previously experienced difficulty in
learning subtraction, illustrates the
type of research stimulated by social learning theory. One group of students
observed a subtraction demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an
instructional program on subtraction. A second group observed other grade 2
students performing the same subtraction procedures and then participated in the
same instructional program. The students who observed peer models scored higher
on a subtraction post-test and also reported greater confidence in their
subtraction ability. The results were interpreted as supporting the hypothesis
that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases self-efficacy,
leading to more effective learning of modeled behavior. It is supposed that peer
modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy.

Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has
focused on developing theories of self-regulated
learning (SRL) and metacognition. These
theories work from the central premise that effective learners are active agents
who construct knowledge by setting goals, analysing tasks, planning strategies
and monitoring their understanding. Research has indicated that learners who are
better at goal setting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task
interest and self-efficacy;[34]
and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement.[35]

[edit]
Constructivist
perspective

Main article: Constructivism
(learning theory)

Constructivism
is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and
prior 'knowing' and experience of the learner, and often on the social and
cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists
distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's theory of
cognitive development, from social
constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is Lev
Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with
adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental
constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other
educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional
scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports
for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.

[edit]
Motivation

Motivation is an internal
state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology
research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students
bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic
motivation, the personally held goals that guide their
behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure.

A form of attribution theory
developed by Bernard Weiner[36]
describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure
affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute
failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they
experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and
consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when
students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as
controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase
effort and show improved performance.

Motivational theories also explain how learners' goals affect the
way they engage with academic tasks.[37]
Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and
knowledge. Those who have performance approach goals strive for high
grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have
performance avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid
situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery
goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face
of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity and intrinsic
motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative
outcomes such as poor concentration while studying,
disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and
test
anxiety. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes,
and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow
information processing.

Locus of control is a
salient factor in the successful academic performance of students. During the
1970s and 1980s, Cassandra B. Whyte
did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the
academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework. Much of
her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of Julian B. Rotter in
regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic
performance.[38]
Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work
may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or
fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is
important to provide education and counseling in this regard.[39]

[edit]
Research methodology

The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn from
psychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significant
methodological innovation by educational psychologists, and psychologists
investigating educational problems. Research methods address problems in both research design
and data analysis. Research
design informs the planning of experiments and observational studies to ensure
that their results have internal, external and ecological validity.
Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical) and
qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use of
quantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship,
modern educational psychology research uses both quantitative and
qualitative
methods.[40]

[edit]
Quantitative methods

Test scores and other educational variables often
approximate a normal
distribution.

Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational
psychology was the development and application of factor analysis by Charles Spearman.
Factor analysis is mentioned here as one example of the many multivariate
statistical methods used by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is
used to summarize relationships among a large set of variables or test
questions, develop theories about mental constructs such as self-efficacy or
anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of test scores.[41]
Over one hundred years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysis has
become a research staple figuring prominently in educational psychology
journals.

Because educational
assessment is fundamental to most quantitative research in the field,
educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field of psychometrics. For
example, alpha, the widely
used measure of test reliability was
developed by educational psychologist Lee Cronbach. The
reliability of assessments are routinely reported in quantitative educational
research. Although, originally, educational measurement methods were built on classical test
theory, item response
theory and Rasch models are now used
extensively in educational measurement worldwide. These models afford advantages
over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of
measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity
to handle missing responses.

Meta-analysis, the
combination of individual research results to produce a quantitative literature review, is
another methodological innovation with a close association to educational
psychology. In a meta-analysis, effect sizes that represent,
for example, the differences between treatment groups in a set of similar
experiments, are averaged to obtain a single aggregate value representing the
best estimate of the effect of
treatment.[42]
Several decades after Pearson's work with early
versions of meta-analysis, Glass[43]
published the first application of modern meta-analytic techniques and triggered
their broad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today,
meta-analysis is among the most common types of literature review found in
educational psychology research.

Other quantitative research issues associated with educational psychology
include the use of nested research designs (e.g., a student nested within a
classroom, which is nested within a school, which is nested within a district,
etc.) and the use of longitudinal statistical models to measure change.

[edit]
Qualitative methods

Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to
describe events, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The
qualitative methods used in educational psychology often derive from anthropology, sociology or
sociolinguistics. For
example, the anthropological method of ethnography has been used to
describe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the
researcher may gather detailed field notes as a participant
observer or passive observer. Later, the notes and other data may be
categorized and interpreted by methods such as grounded theory. Triangulation,
the practice of cross-checking findings with multiple data sources, is highly
valued in qualitative research.

Case studies
are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization,
event, or other entity. In one case study,[44]
researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured interview with a 20-year old
woman who had a history of suicidal thinking
between the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audio-recording of the interview
to understand the roles of cognitive development, identity formation
and social attachment in
ending her suicidal thinking.

Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such
as conversations, interviews, focus groups, and personal
journals. Qualitative methods are thus, typically, approaches to gathering,
processing and reporting verbal data. One of the most commonly used methods for
qualitative research in educational psychology is protocol analysis.[45]
In this method the research participant is asked to think aloud
while performing a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis
the verbal data is thought to indicate which information the subject is
attending to, but is explicitly not interpreted as an explanation or
justification for behavior. In contrast, the method of verbal analysis[46]
does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal their mental
model or misconceptions (e.g., of
the laws of motion). The most fundamental operations in both protocol and verbal
analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sections of verbal data. Conversation
analysis and discourse analysis,
sociolinguistic methods that focus more specifically on the structure of
conversational interchange (e.g., between a teacher and student), have been used
to assess the process of conceptual change in science learning.[47]
Qualitative methods are also used to analyse information in a variety of media,
such as students' drawings and concept maps,
video-recorded interactions, and computer log records.

[edit]
Applications in instructional design and
technology

Bloom's
taxonomy of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domain[48]

Instructional
design, the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive
environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology
theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives,
instructional designers often use a taxonomy of
educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and
colleagues.[48]
Bloom also researched mastery learning, an
instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning
objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom[49]
discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is
highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally
achieved in classroom instruction. Gagné, another
psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task
analysis in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of
learning objectives[50]
connected by prerequisite relations.

Intelligent
tutoring system

Educational
technology

John R. Anderson

Cognitive tutor

Cooperative
learning

Collaborative
learning

problem-based
learning

Computer
supported collaborative learning

William Winn

constructive
alignment

[edit]
Applications in
teaching

A class size experiment in the United States found
that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased
high school graduation of students from low income families.[51]

Research on classroom
management and pedagogy is conducted to guide
teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The
goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning
and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom
management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships,
manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counselling and other
psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial
problems.[52]

Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in
most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its
content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially
cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students'
learning, and classroom management. A developing Wikibook
about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational
psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher
education.

Special education

Lesson plan

More
about applications to classroom teaching

[edit]
History

Modern educational psychologists are not the first to analyze educational
processes. Philosophers of
education such as Democritus, Quintilian,
Vives and Comenius, had examined,
classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of
psychology in the late 1800s. Instead, aspirations of the new discipline
rested on the application of the scientific methods of
observation and experimentation to educational problems. Even in the earliest
years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of
this new approach. In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on
Psychology, published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational
psychology textbook, the pioneering American psychologist William
James commented that:

“

Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences
never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive
mind must make that application, by using its originality.[53]

”

According to Berliner[54]
educational psychology theorists' attitude to the world of educational practice
has shifted from initial interest to disdain, and eventually to respect.

Charles Hubbard
Judd

In 1912, Thorndike, who developed the theory of instrumental
conditioning, presaged later work on programmed instruction, mastery
learning and computer-based learning:

“

If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so
arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would
page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal
instruction could be managed by print.[55]

”

Among the few works of educational psychology historiography is Educational
Psychology: A Century of Contributions[56]
which presents chapter-length biographies of 16 eminent scholars whose work has
significantly influenced the development of educational psychology.

[edit]
Careers in
educational psychology

[edit]
Education and
training

A person may be considered an educational psychologist after completing a
graduate degree in educational
psychology or a closely related field. Universities establish educational
psychology graduate programs in either psychology departments or, more commonly,
faculties of education.

Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in
university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social
processes of human development, learning and education. Educational
psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational
materials, classroom programs and online courses.

Educational psychologists who work in k-12 school settings (called school psychologists
in the US and Canada) are trained at the masters and doctoral
levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide
services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher
consultation, and crisis intervention.

In the UK, status as a Chartered Educational Psychologist is gained by
completing:

an undergraduate degree in psychology permitting registration with the British
Psychological Society

two or three years experience working with children, young people and
their families.

a three-year professional doctorate in educational psychology.

The previous requirement to train and work for two years as a teacher has now
been abandoned.

[edit]
Employment outlook

Employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster
than most occupations through the year 2014, with anticipated growth of 18-26%.
One in four psychologists are employed in educational settings. In the United
States, the median salary for psychologists in
primary and secondary schools is US$58,360 as of May 2004.[57]

In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in
North American educational psychology has risen dramatically.[58]
The percentage of female authors of peer-reviewed journal articles doubled from
1976 (24%) to 1995 (51%), and has since remained constant. Female membership on
educational psychology journal editorial boards increased from 17% in 1976 to
47% in 2004. Over the same period, the proportion of chief editor positions held
by women increased from 22% to 70%.

[edit]
Research journals

There are several peer-reviewed research
journals in educational psychology tracked by Journal Citation
Reports. The most highly cited journals related to educational
psychology are currently Child Development and Educational
Psychologist.

[edit]
See also

Wikiversity has learning materials about Educational
psychology

Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis

List of
educational psychologists

Applied psychology

Articles
related to educational psychology

American
Educational Research Association

American
Psychological Association

Association
for Psychological Science

British
Psychological Society

Educational
psychologists

Contemporary
Educational Psychology

Educational
research

Evolutionary
educational psychology

Important
publications in educational psychology

International
Society of the Learning Sciences

Learning sciences

List of education
topics

Sociology of
education

Philosophy of
education

School
psychologist

Education
portal

[edit]
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[edit]
External links

Educational Psychology Resources by Athabasca
University

Division 15
of the American Psychological Association

Educational
Psychology Interactive

Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological
Society

School Psychology on the Web

Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into
Practice Database

Classics in the History of Psychology

The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing

EPNET - Educational Psychology forum

* Virtuoso Education Consulting LLC,Professional
Development

[edit]
Careers

United Kingdom description of educational psychologist

Educational Psychologist description from the British
Psychological Society

[edit]
Textbooks

There are literally dozens of textbooks in print that either provide a broad
general introduction to educational psychology, or else deal with particular
major aspects of it (Amazon.com, for example, lists over 1500 titles). The
following are among the major texts currently in use, but are not the only
possibilities:

Psychology Applied To Teaching by Jack Snowman and Robert
Biehler

Educational Psychology by John Santrock

Educational Psychology by Robert Slavin

Educational Psychology: Developing Learners by Jeanne Ormrod

Educational
Psychology by Anita Woolfolk

Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective
Learning by Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook & Travers

Educational Psychology, by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton
(online)

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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology"

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