Anarchism

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v · d · e

Anarchism has been variously defined by sources. Most often, the term
describes the political
philosophy which considers the state undesirable,
unnecessary, and harmful, and instead promotes a stateless society, or
anarchy,[1][2]
while others have defined it as opposing authority in the conduct of
human relations.[3][4][5]
Anarchists widely disagree on what additional criteria are essential to
anarchism. According to The
Oxford Companion to Philosophy, "there is no single defining position
that all anarchists hold, and those considered anarchists at best share a
certain family
resemblance."[6]

Contents

1 Overview

2 Etymology and
terminology

3 History

3.1 Origins

3.2 The First
International

3.3 Organised
labour

3.4 Propaganda of the deed
and illegalism

3.5 Russian Revolution and
other uprisings of the 1910s

3.6 Fight against fascism,
the Spanish revolution and World War II

3.7 Post-war
years

3.8 Contemporary
anarchism

4 Anarchist schools of
thought

4.1 Mutualism

4.2 Individualist
anarchism

4.3 Social
anarchism

4.4 Post-classical
currents

5 Topics of interest in
anarchist theory

5.1 Free
love

5.2 Libertarian education
and freethought

5.3 Internal issues and
debates

6 Criticism

7 See also

8 References

9 Further
reading

10 External
links

[edit]
Overview

There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are
mutually exclusive.[7]
Anarchist
schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from
extreme individualism to complete collectivism.[2]
Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of social and individualist
anarchism or similar dual classifications.[8][9]
Anarchism is often considered to be a radical left-wing
ideology,[10][11]
and much of anarchist economics
and anarchist legal philosophy
reflect anti-statist
interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism or participatory
economics. However, anarchism has always included an individualist
strain supporting a market economy and private property, or
morally unrestrained egoism.[12][13][14]
Some individualist anarchists are also socialists or communists while some
anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists[15][16]
while some anarcho-communists are also individualists.[17][18]

Anarchism as a social movement has
regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. The central tendency of anarchism
as a mass social movement has been represented by anarcho-communism
and anarcho-syndicalism,
with individualist
anarchism being primarily a literary phenomenon[19]
which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents[20]
and individualists also participated in large anarchist organizations.[21][22]
Most anarchists oppose all forms of
aggression, supporting self-defense or non-violence (anarcho-pacifism),[23][24]
while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including
violent revolution and propaganda of the
deed, on the path to an anarchist society.[25]

[edit]
Etymology and
terminology

For more information, see Anarchist
terminology.

The term anarchism derives from
the Greek ἄναρχος,
anarchos, meaning "without rulers",[26][27]
from the prefix ἀν- (an-, "without") + ἀρχή (archê, "sovereignty,
realm, magistracy")[28]
+ -ισμός (-ismos, from the suffix -ιζειν,
-izein "-izing"). There is some ambiguity with the use of the terms "libertarianism" and
"libertarian" in writings about anarchism. Since the 1890s from France,[29]
the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism[30]
and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United
States;[31]
its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.[32]
Accordingly, "libertarian
socialism" is sometimes used as a synonym for socialist
anarchism,[33][34]
to distinguish it from "individualist libertarianism" (individualist anarchism).
On the other hand, some use "libertarianism" to refer
to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market
anarchism as "libertarian
anarchism".[35][36]

[edit]
History

Main article: History of
anarchism

[edit]
Origins

William Godwin, "the
first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even
though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".[37]

The earliest[38]
anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher
Laozi,[37]
and in later centuries by Zhuangzi and Bao Jingyan.[39]
Zhuangzi, specifically, was called by economist Ludwig von Mises as
"the first anarchist in the history of human thought".[38]
According to Austrian School
economists Murray Rothbard and
Mises, Zhuangzi was the first to develop the idea of spontaneous order,
independently discovered by Proudhon in the nineteenth
century.[38]
Zhuangzi
wrote, "A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a
Nation,"[40]
while Bao Jingyan said that as soon as "the relationship between lord and
subject is established, hearts become daily filled with evil designs, until the
manacled criminals sullenly doing forced labour in the mud and the dust are full
of mutinous thoughts." Diogenes of Sinope
and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno
of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, also introduced
similar topics.[37][41]

The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the
English Civil War, as
a term of
abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead
opponents.[42]
By the time of the French Revolution
some, such as the Enragés, began to use
the term positively,[43]
in opposition to Jacobin
centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as oxymoronic.[42]
By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its
initial negative connotation.[42]

Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment,
particularly Jean-Jacques
Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.[44]
From this climate William Godwin developed
what many consider the first expression of modern
anarchist thought.[45]
Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the
first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even
though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work",[37]
while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early Edmund Burke.[46]
Benjamin Tucker instead
credits Josiah Warren, an American
who promoted stateless and voluntary
communities where all goods and services were private, with being "the
first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism."[47]
The first to describe himself as an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon,[42]
a French philosopher and politician, which led some to call him the founder of
modern anarchist theory.[48]

The anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque was
the first person to describe himself as "libertarian".[49]
Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, "it
is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to
the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature."[50][51]

[edit]
The First
International

Main article: International
Workingmen's Association

Collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin opposed
the Marxist aim of dictatorship
of the proletariat in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with
the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the
Marxists.[42]

In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848,
during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as
groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at
systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the
divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent
further revolt.[52]
In 1864 the International
Workingmen's Association (sometimes called the "First International") united
diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon,[53]
Blanquists,
Philadelphes, English trade
unionists, socialists and social democrats.

Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a
significant organization. Karl Marx became a leading
figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's
followers, the mutualists,
opposed Marx's state socialism,
advocating political abstentionism and small
property holdings.[54][55]

In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the League of Peace
and Freedom (LPF), Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin and his
collectivist
anarchist associates joined the First International (which had decided not
to get involved with the LPF).[56]
They allied themselves with the federalist socialist sections
of the International,[57]
who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization
of property.

At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First
International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the
International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their
respective figureheads.[58]
Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as centralist and predicted
that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place
of the ruling class they had
fought against.[59][60]

In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at
the Hague Congress,
where Bakunin and James Guillaume were
expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New
York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the
St. Imier
Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.[61]

[edit]
Organised labour

Main articles: Anarcho-syndicalism,
International
Workers' Association, Anarchism in Spain,
and Spanish
Revolution

The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the
precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and
authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of
labor."[62]
In 1886, the Federation
of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada
unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the eight-hour work day would
become standard.[63]

In response, unions across the United States prepared a
general strike in support
of the event.[63]
On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when strikebreakers attempted
to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the
crowd.[64]
The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket
Square.[65]
A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing
an officer.[66]
In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.[67]
Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.[68]
Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally
were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men
became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of
the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution.
The incident became known as the Haymarket affair, and
was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight hour day.
In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the
eight hour day was made.The event also had the secondary purpose of
memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.[69]
Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following
year the celebration of International
Workers' Day on May Day had become firmly
established as an international worker's holiday.[63]

A sympathetic engraving by Walter Crane of the
executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the Haymarket affair. The
Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the
origin of international May Day
observances

In 1907, the International
Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14 different
countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including Errico Malatesta, Pierre
Monatte, Luigi Fabbri, Benoît
Broutchoux, Emma Goldman, Rudolf
Rocker, and Christiaan
Cornelissen. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular
concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, popular education
issues, the general strike or antimilitarism. A central
debate concerned the relation between anarchism and syndicalism (or trade
unionism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves
on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and
would create the conditions of a social revolution,
while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.[70]
He thought that the trade-union movement was reformist and even conservative, citing as
essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union
officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating
syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and
consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving
it.[71]

The Spanish
Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement;
anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most
successful was the Confederación
Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in
1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class
politics, attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role
in the Spanish Civil War.[72]
The CNT was affiliated with the International
Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions
founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15
countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The
anarchists quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers
throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of the
trade unions in Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Chile,
and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the
Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization was undoubtedly to a great extent
responsible for this situation. The largest and most militant of these
organizations was the Federación
Obrera Regional Argentina...it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a
quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions."[24]

The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of
the Confederación
General del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT.
CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for 2003.[73]
Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the Central
Organisation of the Workers of Sweden and the Swedish
Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation; the CNT-AIT in France;[74]
the Union Sindicale
Italiana in Italy; in the US Workers
Solidarity Alliance and the UK Solidarity
Federation. The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial
Workers of the World, claiming 2,000 paying members, and the International
Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First
International, also remain active.

[edit]
Propaganda of
the deed and illegalism

Main articles: Propaganda of the
deed, Illegalism, and Expropriative
anarchism

Italian-American
anarchist Luigi Galleani. His
followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and
assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on
'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people'

Some anarchists, such as Johann Most, advocated
publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because
"we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as
propaganda."[75]
By the 1880s, the slogan "propaganda of the deed" had begun to be used both
within and outside of the anarchist movement to refer to individual bombings, regicides and tyrannicides. From 1905
onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists
become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal ‘expropriations’."[76]
Illegalism as a practice
emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("propaganda by the
deed") and the anarchist burglars ("individual
reappropriation") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent
rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be
exemplary , invitations to revolt.".[77]
France's Bonnot Gang was the most
famous group to embrace illegalism.

However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement
distanced themselves from such individual acts. Peter Kropotkin thus
wrote that year in Le Révolté that "a structure based on centuries of
history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".[78]
A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in
favor of collective revolutionary action, for example through the trade
union movement. The anarcho-syndicalist,
Fernand Pelloutier,
argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement on the
basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."[79]

State repression
(including the infamous 1894 French lois
scélérates) of the anarchist and labor
movements following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have
contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally
state repression, in the first place, may have played a role in these isolated
acts. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement,
into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 Paris
Commune, the execution and exile of many communards to penal colonies, favored
individualist political expression and acts.[80]

Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of
the anarchist movement. For example, U.S. President McKinley's
assassin Leon Czolgosz claimed to
have been influenced by anarchist and feminist Emma
Goldman. Bombings were associated in the media with anarchists because international
terrorism arose during this time period with the widespread distribution of
dynamite. This image remains to this day.

Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist
movement after World War I (1914–1918) and
the 1917 October
Revolution.

[edit]
Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the
1910s

Main articles: Anarchism in Russia,
Russian Revolution
(1917), and Revolutions
of 1917–23

Nestor Makhno with members
of the anarchist Revolutionary
Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine

Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions,
and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.[81]
However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing
opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion
which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either
imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the
anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to the Ukraine.[82]
There, in the Free Territory,
they fought in the civil war against the
Whites (a grouping of
monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the
Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary
Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who
established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.

Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were
amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of
the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their
experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks
exercised. For them, Bakunin's predictions
about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist"
Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true.[59][83]

The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting
Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally.
Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew
at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the
United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the CGT
and IWW left
the organizations and joined the Communist International.[84]

The revolutionary
wave of 1917–23 saw the active participation of anarchists in varying
degrees of protagonism. In the german uprising known as the Bavarian Soviet
Republic the anarchists Gustav Landauer, Silvio
Gesell and Erich Mühsam had
important leadership positions within the revolutionary councilist
structures.[85][86]
In the italian events known as the biennio rosso the
anarcho-syndicalist trade union Unione Sindacale
Italiana "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist
Union (20,000 members plus Umanita Nova, its daily
paper) grew accordingly...Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying
workplaces.[87]
In the Mexican Revolution
the Mexican Liberal
Party was established and during the early 1910s it lead a series of
military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and
districts in Baja California with the
leadership of anarcho-communist Ricardo Flores
Magón.[88]

In Paris, the Dielo Truda group of Russian
anarchist exiles, which included Nestor Makhno, concluded
that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the
structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the Organizational
Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft),[89]
was supported. Platformist groups active
today include the Workers
Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist
Communists of North America. Synthesis anarchism
emerged as an organizational alternative to platformism which tries to join
anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism
without adjectives.[90]
In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents Volin and Sebastien Faure.[90]
It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the
contemporary global International
of Anarchist Federations.[90]

Anti-fascist Maquis, who
resisted Nazi and
Francoist rule in
Europe.

[edit]
Fight against fascism, the Spanish revolution and World War
II

Main articles: anti-fascism and anarchism and
nationalism

See also: anarchism in Italy,
anarchism in
France, and anarchism in
Spain

In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed
anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between
anarchists and fascists. Italian anarchists
played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation
Arditi del Popolo,
which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some
success in their activism, such as repelling Blackshirts in the anarchist
stronghold of Parma
in August 1922.[91]
The veteran Italian anarchist, Luigi Fabbri, was one of the first critical
theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution." [9] In France, where the far right leagues came
close to insurrection in the February 1934
riots, anarchists divided over a united front policy.[92]

In Spain, the CNT
initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by
CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT
changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to
power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup
causing the Spanish Civil War
(1936–1939).[93]
In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired
movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of
Barcelona
and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivised the
land.[94]
But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground
in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the
distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet
Union. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both
dissident
Marxists and anarchists.[95]

Anarchists in France[96]
and Italy[97]
were active in the Resistance
during World War II.

[edit]
Post-war years

Paul Goodman,
influential american anarchist author of Growing Up Absurd:
Problems of Youth in the Organized Society among other works critical of
contemporary societies

Anarchism sought to reorganize itself after the war. The Mexican
Anarchist Federation was established on 1945 after the Anarchist Federation
of the Center united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District.[98]
In the early 1940s Antifascist International Solidarity and Federation of
Anarchist Groups of Cuba merge into the large national organization Asociación
Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association).[99]
From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerges as
part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but is repressed by the new
Communist regime.[100]
In 1945 in France the Fédération
Anarchiste is established and the also synthesist Federazione
Anarchica Italiana is founded in Italy. Korean
anarchists form the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945[100]
and in 1946 the Japanese
Anarchist Federation is founded.[101]
An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe is held in
Paris in May 1948.[100]
In 1956 the Uruguayan
Anarchist Federation is founded.[102]
In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renames itself as the Argentine
Libertarian Federation.

Anarchism continued to be influential in important literary and intellectual
personalities of the time such as Albert Camus, Herbert
Read, Paul Goodman, Dwight Macdonald, Allen
Ginsberg, Julian Beck and the French
Surrealist group led by André
Breton which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the Fédération
Anarchiste.[103]

Anarcho-pacifism became
influential in the Anti-nuclear
movement and anti war movements of
the time[104][105]
as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of
Campaign
for Nuclear Disarmament Alex Comfort or the similar
activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifist Ammon Hennacy.
Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of
the Cold
War."[106]
The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in
Robert Graham's Anarchism:
A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of
the New Anarchism (1939-1977).[100]

[edit]
Contemporary
anarchism

Main article: Contemporary
anarchism

The famous okupas squat near Parc
Güell, overlooking Barcelona. Squatting was a prominent part
of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the counterculture of the
1960s and 1970s.

A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during
the 1960s and 1970s.[107]
Anarchism was influential in the Counterculture
of the 1960s[108][109][110]
and anarchists actively participated in the late sixties students and
workers revolts.[111]
In 1968 in Carrara, Italy the International
of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist
conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France,
the Italian
and the Iberian
Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French
exile.[112][113]

In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the punk rock
movement, as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex
Pistols.[114]
The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation
of communes
and squatter movements like that
of Barcelona, Spain. In Denmark,
squatters occupied a disused
military base and declared the Freetown
Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen.

Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,[115]
a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist
tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of anarcha-feminism, they
returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. The American
Civil Rights Movement and the movement against the war in Vietnam also
contributed to the revival of North American anarchism. European anarchism of
the late 20th century drew much of its strength from the labour movement, and
both have incorporated animal rights activism.
Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber and
anarchist historian Andrej Grubacic have
posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still
have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the
younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and cultural-critical ideas",
and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of
anarchists.[116]

Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and
influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and anti-globalisation
movements.[117]
Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings
of the World Trade
Organization (WTO), Group
of Eight, and the World Economic
Forum. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting,
property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were
precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as black
blocs; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include security culture, affinity groups and the
use of decentralised technologies such as the internet.[117]
A significant event of this period was the confrontations at WTO
conference in Seattle in 1999.[117]

International anarchist federations in existence include the International
of Anarchist Federations, the International
Workers' Association, and International
Libertarian Solidarity.

[edit]
Anarchist schools of
thought

Main article: Anarchist
schools of thought

Portrait of philosopher Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon (1809–1865) by Gustave Courbet.
Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist mutualism,
and influenced many later individualist
anarchist thinkers.

Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main
historical traditions, individualist
anarchism and social anarchism, which
have some different origins, values and evolution.[2][8][118]
The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises negative liberty, i.e.
opposition to state or social control over the
individual, while those in the social wing emphasise positive liberty to
achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to
fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".[119]
In chronological and theoretical sense there are classical — those created
throughout the 19th century — and post-classical anarchist schools — those
created since the mid-20th century and after.

Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is philosophical
anarchism, which embodies the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral
legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A
component especially of individualist anarchism[120][121]
philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a minimal state as unfortunate,
and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to
obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.[122]
One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "anarchism
without adjectives", a call for toleration first adopted by
Fernando
Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist
theory at the time.[123]
In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-,
mutualist- and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the anti-authoritarian
beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.[124]

[edit]
Mutualism

Main article: Mutualism
(economic theory)

Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labour movements before
taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon in France and others in the United States.[125]
Proudhon proposed spontaneous order,
whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy"
where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he
wishes"[126]
and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."[127]

Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity,
free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency
reform. According to William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist
system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in
cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or
discount."[128]
Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated
between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.[129]
Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis
of communism and property."[130]

[edit]
Individualist
anarchism

Main article: Individualist
anarchism

Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the
anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of
external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological
systems.[131][132]
Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of
individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.

19th century
philosopher Max Stirner, usually
considered a prominent early individualist
anarchist (sketch by Friedrich
Engels).

In 1793, William Godwin, who has
often[133]
been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice,
which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism.[45][134]
Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed
revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a
present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless
by the gradual spread of knowledge.[45][135]
Godwin advocated individualism, proposing
that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be
most conducive with the general good.[136][137]

An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"[138]
or egoist anarchism, was
expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist
anarchism, the german Max Stirner.[139]
Stirner's The Ego and Its
Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.[139]
According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is
their power to obtain what they desire,[140]
without regard for God, state, or morality.[141]
To Stirner, rights were spooks in the
mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its
reality".[142]
Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists,
non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through
an act of will,[143]
which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the state.[144]
Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union
between individuals.[145]
"Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was
re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay.

Josiah Warren is widely
regarded as the first American anarchist,[146]
and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful
Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published,.[147]
For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent...that
Proudhonian Anarchism was to be
found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not
conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah
Warren and Stephen Pearl
Andrews...William B. Greene
presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic
form.".[148]
Henry David Thoreau
(1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought
in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet,
naturalist, tax resister, development
critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He
is best known for his books Walden, a reflection upon simple
living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil
Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government
in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later Benjamin Tucker fused
Stirner´s egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic
influential publication Liberty.

From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries
attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and
intellectuals,[149]
free love
and birth control advocates
(see Anarchism
and issues related to love and sex),[150][151]
individualist naturists nudists (see anarcho-naturism)[152]
,[153][154]
freethought and anti-clearical
activists[155][156]
as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as illegalism
and individual
reclamation[157][158](see
European
individualist anarchism). These authors and activists included Oscar
Wilde, Emile Armand, Han Ryner,
Henri
Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Gimenez
Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev
Chernyi among others.

[edit]
Social anarchism

Main article: Social anarchism

Social anarchism calls for a system with public ownership of means of
production and democratic control of all organizations, without any government
authority or coercion. It is the largest
school of thought in anarchism.[159]
Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social
inequality, and emphasises cooperation and mutual
aid.[160]

Russian theorist Peter Kropotkin
(1842–1921), who was influential in the development of anarchist
communism.

Collectivist
anarchism, also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of
such,[161][162]
is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann
Most.[163][164]
Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production,
instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved
through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through
acts of violence, or "propaganda by the
deed", which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly
collectivise the means of production.[163]

However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of
income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving
goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This
position was criticised by anarchist
communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".[165]
Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist
dictatorship
of the proletariat, despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist
stateless society.[166]
Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not mutually exclusive;
although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some
held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist
system of distribution according to need.[167]

Anarcho-communism
developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution[50][168]
but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First
International.[169]
The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta took
importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary
anti-organizationalist sections.[170]Anarchist communism
proposes that the freest form of social organisation
would be a society composed of self-managing communes with
collective use of the means of production,
organised democratically, and related to
other communes through federation.[171]
While some anarchist communists favour direct democracy,
others feel that its majoritarianism can impede
individual liberty and favour consensus democracy
instead. In anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would
not receive direct compensation for labour
(through sharing of profits or payment)
but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.[172][173]
Anarchist communism does not always have a communitarian philosophy.
Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary
anarchism are egoist and strongly
influenced by radical individualism, believing
anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual
freedom.[17][18][174][175]
Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the
opposition between the individual and society.[176][177][178]

In the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism
arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism.[179]
With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical
trade
unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing
capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by
the workers. It is often combined with other branches of anarchism, and
anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to anarchist communist
or collectivist
anarchist economic systems.[180]
An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938
pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the movement's origin,
aims and importance to the future of labour.[180][181]

[edit]
Post-classical
currents

See also: Contemporary
anarchism

Lawrence Jarach (left)
and John
Zerzan (right), two prominent contemporary anarchist authors. Zerzan is
known as a main theorist of anarcho-primitivism,
while Jarach is a noted advocate of post-left
anarchy.

Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times
eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and syncretic, combining
disparate and contrary concepts to create new philosophical approaches. Since
the revival of anarchism in the United States in the 1960s,[115]
a number of new movements and schools have emerged.[182]
Anarcho-capitalism
developed from radical anti-state libertarianism and individualist
anarchism, drawing from Austrian School
economics, study of law and economics and
public choice
theory,[183]
while the burgeoning feminist and environmentalist
movements also produced anarchist offshoots.

Anarcha-feminism
developed as a synthesis of radical feminism and
anarchism that views patriarchy (male domination
over women) as a fundamental manifestation of compulsory government. It was
inspired by the late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as
Lucy
Parsons, Emma Goldman, Voltairine de
Cleyre, and Dora Marsden.
Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticise and advocate the
abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender
roles. Green anarchism (or
eco-anarchism)[184]
is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental
issues,[185]
with an important precedent in anarcho-naturism[153][186][187]
and whose main contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism
and social ecology. Anarcho-pacifism is a
tendency which rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social
change.[23][24]
It developed "mostly in the Netherlands, Britain, and the United
States, before and during the Second World War".[24]
Christian anarchism
is a movement in political theology
that combines anarchism and Christianity.[188]
Tts main proponents included Leo Tolstoy, Dorothy
Day, Ammon Hennacy, and Jacques
Ellul.

Post-left anarchy is a
tendency which seeks to distance itself from traditional left-wing politics
and to escape the confines of ideology in general. Post-anarchism is a
theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist
thought drawing from diverse ideas including post-modernism, autonomist marxism,
post-left anarchy, situationism
and postcolonialism.

Another recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is insurrectionary
anarchism,[189]
which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its
proponents include Wolfi Landstreicher
and Alfredo M.
Bonanno.

[edit]
Topics of
interest in anarchist theory

Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain
topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist
theory.

[edit]
Free love

Main articles: Free love, Anarchism and
sex/love, Anarcha-feminism, and
Queer anarchism

French individualist
anarchist Emile Armand (1872–1962),
who propounded the virtues of free love in the Parisian anarchist milieu of the
early 20th century

An important current within anarchism is free love.[150]
Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah
Warren and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear,
direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly
stressed women's rights since
most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and
anti-birth control measures.[150]
The most important American free love journal was Lucifer the
Lightbearer (1883–1907) edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker,[190]
but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela
Heywood's The Word
(1872–1890, 1892–1893).[150]
Free
Society (1895-1897 as The Firebrand; 1897-1904 as Free
Society) was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end
of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.[191]
The publication staunchly advocated free love and women's rights, and
critiqued "Comstockery" -- censorship
of sexual information.Also M. E. Lazarus was an
important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.[150]

In New York City's Greenwich Village, bohemian
feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for women (and
also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with sexual roles and
sexuality,[192]
and the openly bisexual radical Edna St. Vincent
Millay and the lesbian anarchist Margaret Anderson were
prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were
frequented by Emma Goldman, among others.
Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has campaigned boldly and
steadfastly for individual rights, and especially for those deprived of their
rights. Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman, indeed the
first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the
general public."[193]
In fact, before Goldman, heterosexual anarchist
Robert Reitzel (1849–1898) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning
of the 1890s in his Detroit-based German language journal Der
arme Teufel. In Argentina anarcha-feminist Virginia Bolten
published the newspaper called La Voz de la
Mujer (English: The Woman's
Voice), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January
1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901.[194]

In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism
was Emile Armand.[195]
He proposed the concept of la camaraderie amoureuse to speak of free love
as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He
was also a consistent proponent of polyamory.[195]
In Germany the stirnerists Adolf
Brand and John Henry Mackay were
pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality.

More recently, the British anarcho-pacifist Alex
Comfort gained notoriety during the sexual revolution for
writing the bestseller sex manual The Joy of Sex. The
issue of free
love has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-hedonist philosopher Michel
Onfray in such works as Théorie du corps amoureux : pour une
érotique solaire (2000) and L'invention du plaisir : fragments
cyréaniques (2002).

[edit]
Libertarian
education and freethought

See also: Freethought

Francesc
Ferrer i Guàrdia, Catalan anarchist
pedagogue and free-thinker

For English anarchist William Godwin education
was "the main means by which change would be achieved."[196]
Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness
[196]
For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child’s autonomy which
precluded any form of coercion", "A pedagogy that respected this and sought to
build on the child’s own motivation and initiatives" and "A concern about the
child’s capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school."[196]
In his Political Justice
he criticizes state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with
national government".[197]
Early American anarchist Josiah Warren advanced
alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he
established.[198]
Max
Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called The
False Principle of our Education. In it Stirner names his educational
principle "personalist," explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly
self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters,"
by which he means "eternal characters...who are therefore eternal because they
form themselves each moment".[199]

In the United States "freethought was a basically anti-christian, anti-clerical movement,
whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to
decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to Liberty
(anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and
anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of
Freethought and, for a time, The Truth Seeker. E.C. Walker was
co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal Lucifer, the
Light-Bearer".[155]
"Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought
papers such as Lucifer, the
Light-Bearer, Freethought and The Truth Seeker appeared in
Liberty...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a
repressive force in and of itself".[155]

In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free-thinker Francesc
Ferrer i Guàrdia established "modern" or progressive
schools in Barcelona in defiance of an
educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.[200]
The schools' stated goal was to "educate the working
class in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely
anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from
the authority of church and state.[201]
Murray Bookchin wrote:
"This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical
projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of
influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer's
Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a project which exercised a considerable
influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching
generally."[202]
La Escuela Moderna, and Ferrer's ideas generally, formed the inspiration for a
series of Modern
Schools in the United States,[200]
Cuba, South
America and London. The first of these was
started in New York City in 1911. It
also inspired the Italian newspaper Università
popolare, founded in 1901. Russian christian anarchist
Leo
Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate.[203]
Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the
Tsarist secret police.[204]
Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.[203]
He thought that "Education is the tendency of one man to make another just like
himself... Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is]
when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is
exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator
regards as necessary".[203]
For him "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".[203]

A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of unschooling and the free school in
which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany
led to A.
S. Neill founding what became Summerhill School in
1921.[205]
Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice.[206]
However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian,
they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly
political class
struggle-approach.[207]
In addition to organizing schools according to libertarian principles,
anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term deschooling was popularized
by Ivan
Illich, who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for
self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society
instead.[208]

[edit]
Internal issues and
debates

The use of violence is a
subject of much dispute in anarchism.

Anarchism is a philosophy which embodies
many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement
over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of
capitalism,[6]
nationalism
and religion with
anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships
with ideologies such as Marxism, communism
and capitalism.
Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened
self-interest, veganism or any number of
alternative ethical doctrines.

Phenomena such as civilization, technology
(e.g. within anarcho-primitivism
and insurrectionary
anarchism), and the
democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist
tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.

On a tactical level, while propaganda of the
deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the Nihilist movement),
some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative direct action methods such
as nonviolence, counter-economics and
anti-state cryptography
to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society,
some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.[209]
The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms
among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many definitional
concerns in anarchist theory.

[edit]
Criticism

Main article: Criticisms of
anarchism

Criticisms of anarchism include moral criticisms and practical
criticisms which claim that anarchism is unworkable in practice.

[edit]
See also

Anarchism
portal

Social
and political philosophy portal

Social
movements portal

Outline of
anarchism

Anarchist
symbolism

Lists of
anarchism topics

List of
anarchist communities

List
of anarchist movements by region

[edit]
References

^
Malatesta, Errico. "Towards Anarchism". MAN! (Los Angeles: International
Group of San Francisco). OCLC 3930443. http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm.  Agrell, Siri (2007-05-14). "Working for The Man". The Globe and
Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/. Retrieved 2008-04-14.  "Anarchism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Premium Service. 2006. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285. Retrieved 2006-08-29.  "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 14. 2005. "Anarchism is the view that a
society without the state, or government, is both possible and
desirable.".  The following sources cite
anarchism as a political philosophy: Mclaughlin,
Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 59.
ISBN 0-7546-6196-2.  Johnston, R. (2000). The Dictionary of Human
Geography. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-631-20561-6.

^ a
b
c
Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics.
Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.

^ "Anarchism,
then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of
religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property;
liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for
a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of
producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human
being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life,
according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." Emma
Goldman. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in Anarchism and
Other Essays.

^
Ward, Colin (1966). "Anarchism as a Theory of Organization". http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html. Retrieved 1 March 2010.

^ Anarchist
historian George Woodcock report
of Mikhail Bakunin´s
anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms
of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight
against it." (pg. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee
to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical
recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic
equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."

^ a
b
"Anarchism." The
Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University
Press, 2007, p. 31.

^ Sylvan, Richard (1995). "Anarchism". In Goodwin, Robert
E. and Pettit. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy.
Philip. Blackwell Publishing. p. 231.

^ a
b
Ostergaard,
Geoffrey. "Anarchism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social
Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.

^
Kropotkin, Peter
(2002). Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings. Courier
Dover Publications. p. 5. ISBN 0-486-41955-X. R.B.
Fowler (1972). "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought". Western
Political Quarterly (University of Utah) 25 (4): 738–752. doi:10.2307/446800. JSTOR 446800.

^
Brooks, Frank H. (1994). The Individualist
Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers.
p. xi. ISBN 1-56000-132-1.
"Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always
included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the
hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and
anarcho-capitalists of today"

^ Joseph Kahn (2000). "Anarchism, the Creed That Won't
Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement".
The New York
Times (5 August). Colin
Moynihan (2007). "Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway". New York
Times (16 April).

^ Stringham, Edward (2007). Stringham, Edward. ed. Anarchy and the Law. The Political Economy of Choice..
Transaction Publishers. p. 720.

^ Narveson, Jan (2002). Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. Chapter 11:
Anarchist's Case. "To see this, of course, we must expound the moral
outlook underlying anarchism. To do this we must first make an important
distinction between two general options in anarchist theory [...] The two are
what we may call, respectively, the socialist versus the free-market, or
capitalist, versions."

^
Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications,
2004, pp. 118–119.

^ "This
stance puts him squarely in the libertarian socialist tradition and,
unsurprisingly, (Benjamin) Tucker
referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to
be "Anarchistic socialism." "An Anarchist
FAQby Various Authors

^ "Because
revolution is the fire of our will and a need of our solitary minds; it is an
obligation of the libertarian aristocracy. To create new ethical values. To
create new aesthetic values. To communalize material wealth. To individualize
spiritual wealth." Renzo Novatore.
Toward the Creative Nothing

^ a
b
Post-left
anarcho-communist Bob Black after analysing insurrectionary
anarcho-communist Luigi Galleani's view
on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final
fulfillment of individualism.... The
apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a
misunderstanding of both.... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual
really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of 'emphatically prioritizing
the social over the individual'.... You may as well speak of prioritizing the
chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a 'method of individualization'. It aims to
combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal
unity."Bob Black. Nightmares of Reason.

^ a
b
"Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely
religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more
than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved - and how
enslaved!...Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of
the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as
heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in
place of demand - that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation.
Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."Max Baginski. "Stirner:
The Ego and His Own" on Mother
Earth. Vol. 2. No. 3 MAY, 1907

^ Skirda, Alexandre.
Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May
1968. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.

^ Catalan
historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press
was widely read by members of anarcho-communist
groups and by members of the anarcho-syndicalist
trade union CNT.
There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as Federico Urales and Miguel Gimenez
Igualada who were members of the CNT
and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the Iberian
Anarchist Federation. Xavier Diez. El anarquismo individualista en
España: 1923-1938. ISBN
978-84-96044-87-6

^ Within the
synthesist
anarchist organization, the Fédération
Anarchiste, there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside
anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents. Individualist anarchists
participating inside the Fédération
Anarchiste included Charles-Auguste
Bontemps, Georges Vincey and André Arru. "Pensée et action des anarchistes en France : 1950-1970" by
Cédric GUÉRIN

^ In Italy
in 1945, during the Founding Congress of the Italian
Anarchist Federation, there was a group of individualist anarchists led by
Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time.Cesare Zaccaria (19 August 1897-October 1961) by Pier Carlo
Masini and Paul Sharkey

^ a
b
""Resiting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist
tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard". Ppu.org.uk. 1945-08-06. http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ a
b
c
d
George Woodcock.
Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962)

^ Fowler,
R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." The Western Political
Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4. (December, 1972), pp. 743–744.

^ Anarchy. Merriam-Webster
online.

^ Liddell, Henry George,
& Scott,
Robert, "A Greek-English
Lexicon"[1].

^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. ISBN 0-19-910205-8. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315894.

^ Nettlau, Max (1996). A
Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-900384-89-1.

^ "At the
end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word originated in
1858 by one Joseph Dejacque to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire.
Today the terms “anarchist” and “libertarian” have become interchangeable." Daniel Guérin.
Anarchism: From Theory to Practice

^ Russell,
Dean. Who is a Libertarian?, Foundation
for Economic Education, "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955.

^

Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University
Press 2004 p. 62

Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006,
p. 4

MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with Dwight Macdonald.
University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82

Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press,
1992. p. iv

Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University
of Michigan, 2006, p. 126

Woodcock, George.
Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press,
2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10)

Skirda, Alexandre.
Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May
1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.

Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp
Press, 2001, page 9.

^ Perlin, Terry M. (1979). Contemporary Anarchism.
Transaction Publishers. p. 40. ISBN 0-87855-097-6.

^ Noam
Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p.
739.

^ Morris,
Christopher. 1992. An Essay on the Modern State. Cambridge University
Press. p. 61. (Using "libertarian anarchism" synonymously with "individualist
anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a market society).

^ Burton, Daniel C.. Libertarian anarchism. Libertarian
Alliance.

^ a
b
c
d
Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism", Encyclopædia
Britannica 1910.

^ a
b
c
Taoism in Ancient China

^ [2]

^ Murray Rothbard. "Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward
laissez faire" (PDF). http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-28.

^ Cynics entry in the Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Julie Piering

^ a
b
c
d
e
"Anarchism", BBC Radio 4 program, In Our Time,
Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by Melvyn Bragg of the BBC,
with John Keane, Professor of Politics at University of
Westminster, Ruth Kinna, Senior Lecturer
in Politics at Loughborough
University, and Peter
Marshall, philosopher and historian.

^ Sheehan,
Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85.

^
"Anarchism", Encarta Online
Encyclopedia 2006 (UK version).

^ a
b
c
William Godwin entry by Mark Philip in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006-05-20

^ Godwin
himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's A
Vindication of Natural Society. "Most of the above arguments may be
found much more at large in Burke's Vindication of Natural Society; a
treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are
displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence..." –
footnote, Ch. 2 Political
Justice by William Godwin.

^
Liberty XIV (December, 1900:1).

^ Daniel
Guerin, Anarchism: From Theory to Practice (New York: Monthly Review
Press, 1970).

^
Joseph Déjacque, De
l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque
(in French)

^
Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text
was provided for refs named Graham-2005; see Help:Cite
errors/Cite error references no text

^
"l'Echange", article in Le Libertaire no 6, September 21, 1858, New
York. [3]

^ Breunig, Charles (1977). The Age of Revolution and
Reaction, 1789–1850. New York, N.Y: W. W. Norton
& Company. ISBN 0-393-09143-0.

^ Blin, Arnaud (2007). The History of Terrorism.
Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 116. ISBN 0-520-24709-4.

^ Dodson, Edward (2002). The Discovery of First
Principles: Volume 2. Authorhouse. p. 312. ISBN 0-595-24912-4.

^ Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx
and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 187. ISBN 0-7102-0685-2.

^ Thomas, Paul (1980). Karl Marx and the
Anarchists. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. p. 304. ISBN 0-7102-0685-2.

^ Bak, Jǹos (1991). Liberty and Socialism. Lanham:
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 236. ISBN 0-8476-7680-3.

^ Engel, Barbara (2000). Mothers and Daughters.
Evanston: Northwestern University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0-8101-1740-1.

^ a
b
"On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx"
in Bakunin on Anarchy, translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971.

^ Bakunin, Mikhail
(1991) [1873]. Statism and Anarchy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36973-8.

^
Graham, Robert 'Anarchism (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN
1-55164-251-4.

^
Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in Anarchism: A Documentary
History of Libertarian Ideas, Vol. 1, p. 100 [4]

^ a
b
c
Foner, Philip Sheldon (1986). May day: a short
history of the international workers' holiday, 1886–1986. New York:
International Publishers. p. 56. ISBN 0-7178-0624-3.

^ Avrich, Paul (1984). The Haymarket Tragedy.
Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 190. ISBN 0-691-00600-8.

^ Avrich. The Haymarket Tragedy. p. 193. ISBN 0-691-04711-1.

^ "Patrolman Mathias J. Degan". The Officer Down Memorial Page,
Inc. http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan. Retrieved 2008-01-19.

^ Chicago Tribune,
27 June 1886, quoted in Avrich. The Haymarket
Tragedy. p. 209. ISBN 0-691-04711-1.

^
"Act
II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here". The Dramas of Haymarket.
Chicago Historical Society. 2000. http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-19.

^ Foner. May Day. p. 42. ISBN 0-7178-0624-3.

^ Extract of Malatesta's declaration (French)

^ Skirda, Alexandre (2002). Facing the enemy: a
history of anarchist organization from Proudhon to May 1968. A.
K. Press. p. 89. ISBN 1-902593-19-7.

^ Beevor, Antony (2006).
The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. London:
Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-297-84832-5.

^ Carley,
Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates
2004).

^ http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html%20Website%20of%20the%20Confédération%20Nationale%20du%20Travail%20-%20Association%20Internationale%20des%20Travailleurs

^ ""Action as Propaganda" by Johann Most, July 25, 1885".
Dwardmac.pitzer.edu. 2003-04-21. http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ "Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam

^
"The "illegalists" by Doug Imrie. From "Anarchy: a Journal Of
Desire Armed" , Fall-Winter, 1994-95

^ quoted in
Billington, James H. 1998. Fire in the minds of men: origins of the
revolutionary faith New Jersey: Transaction Books, p 417.

^ "Table Of
Contents". Blackrosebooks.net. http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ Historian
Benedict Anderson
thus writes:

"In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it
for two months. Then Versailles seized the
moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed roughly 20,000
Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher than those killed in
the recent war or during Robespierre's 'Terror' of
1793–1794. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like New
Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and
the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all
possibilities of organizing on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general
amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meanwhile, the Third Republic
found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce Louis
Napoleon's imperialist expansion– in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania.
Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the
Commune (Courbet was its
quasi-minister of culture, Rimbaud and Pissarro were active
propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871
and thereafter, was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from
the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and
abroad." (in Benedict Anderson (July -August
2004). "In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel". New Left Review. http://newleftreview.org/?view=2519. )

According to some
analysts, in post-war
Germany, the prohibition of the Communist
Party (KDP) and thus of institutional far-left political organization may
also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the Red Army
Faction.

^ Dirlik, Arif (1991). Anarchism in the Chinese
Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07297-9.

^ Avrich, Paul (2006). The Russian Anarchists.
Stirling: AK Press. p. 204. ISBN 1-904859-48-8.

^ Goldman, Emma (2003). "Preface". My
Disillusionment in Russia. New York: Dover Publications. p. xx.
ISBN 0-486-43270-X.
"My critic further charged me with believing that "had the Russians made the
Revolution à la Bakunin instead of à la Marx" the result would have been
different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge. In truth, I not
only believe so; I am certain of it."

^ Nomad, Max (1966). "The Anarchist Tradition". In
Drachkovitch, Milorad M.. Revolutionary Internationals 1864 1943.
Stanford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-8047-0293-4.

^ "The
Munich Soviet (or “Council Republic”) of 1919 exhibited certain features of
the TAZ, even though — like most revolutions — its stated goals were not
exactly “temporary.” Gustav Landauer's participation as Minister of Culture
along with Silvio Gesell as Minister of Economics and other anti-authoritarian
and extreme libertarian socialists such as the poet/playwrights Erich Mªhsam
and Ernst Toller, and Ret Marut (the novelist B. Traven), gave the Soviet a
distinct anarchist flavor." Hakim Bey. "T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy,
Poetic Terrorism"

^ "Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19. Die erste Räterepublik der
Literaten"

^ "1918-1921: The Italian factory occupations - Biennio
Rosso"

^ "The Magonista Revolt in Baja California Capitalist Conspiracy or
Rebelion de los Pobres?" by Lawrence D. Taylor

^
Dielo Trouda (2006)
[1926]. Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists
(Draft). Italy: FdCA. http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000. Retrieved 2006-10-24.

^ a
b
c
— Starhawk. ""J.3.2
What are "synthesis" federations?" in An Anarchist FAQ".
Infoshop.org. http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ Holbrow,
Marnie, "Daring but Divided" (Socialist Review November
2002).

^ Berry,
David. "Fascism or Revolution." Le Libertaire. August 1936.

^ Beevor, Antony (2006).
The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. London:
Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-297-84832-5.

^ Bolloten, Burnett
(1984-11-15). The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution.
University of North Carolina Press. p. 1107. ISBN 978-0-8078-1906-7.

^ Birchall, Ian (2004). Sartre Against Stalinism.
Berghahn Books. p. 29. ISBN 1-57181-542-2.

^ "Anarchist Activity in France during World War Two"

^ "1943-1945: Anarchist partisans in the Italian
Resistance"

^ "Regeneración y la Federación Anarquista Mexicana (1952-1960)" by
Ulises Ortega Aguilar

^ "The
surviving sectors of the revolutionary anarchist movement of the 1920-1940
period, now working in the SIA and the FGAC, reinforced by those Cuban
militants and Spanish anarchists fleeing now-fascist Spain, agreed at the
beginning of the decade to hold an assembly with the purpose of regrouping the
libertarian forces inside a single organization. The guarantees of the 1940
Constitution permitted them to legally create an organization of this type,
and it was thus that they agreed to dissolve the two principal Cuban anarchist
organizations, the SIA and FGAC, and create a new, unified group, the
Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (ALC), a sizable organization with a membership
in the thousands."Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement by Frank
Fernandez

^ a
b
c
d
[5]

^ THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT IN JAPAN Anarchist Communist Editions §
ACE Pamphlet No. 8

^ "50
años de la Federación Anarquista Uruguaya"

^ "It was
in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself,"
wrote André Breton in "The Black Mirror of Anarchism," Selection 23 in Robert
Graham, ed., Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume
Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977)[6]. Breton had returned to France in 1947 and in April of
that year Andre Julien welcomed his return in the pages of Le Libertaire the
weekly paper of the Federation
Anarchiste""1919-1950: The politics of Surrealism" by Nick Heath

^ "In the
forties and fifties, anarchism, in fact if not in name, began to reappear,
often in alliance with pacifism, as the basis for a critique of militarism on
both sides of the Cold War.[7] The anarchist/pacifist wing of the peace movement was
small in comparison with the wing of the movement that emphasized electoral
work, but made an important contribution to the movement as a whole. Where the
more conventional wing of the peace movement rejected militarism and war under
all but the most dire circumstances, the anarchist/pacifist wing rejected
these on principle.""Anarchism
and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein

^ "In the
1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding
to the mixture their critique of the state, and tender-minded pacifists their
critique of violence. Its first practical manifestation was at the level of
method: nonviolent direct action, principled and pragmatic, was used widely in
both the Civil Rights movement in the USA and the campaign against nuclear
weapons in Britain and elsewhere."Geoffrey Ostergaard. Resisting the Nation State. The pacifist
and anarchist tradition

^ "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara
Epstein

^ Thomas
1985, p. 4

^ "These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the
nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from
the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier
generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of ‘official’
anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as
industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First
of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of publishing activity.""Islands
of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network" by John
Patten

^ "Farrell
provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy
Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and
commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and
inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the
issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of
protest long before the protest decade.""The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by
James J. Farrell

^ "While
not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was
anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles bcame so
widespread that a political science profes- sor denounced what she saw as "The
Tyranny of Structurelessness." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon
Anarchists." After the Stonewall
Rebellion, the New York Gay Liberation
Front based their organization in part on a reading of Murray Bookchin's
anarchist writings." "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in Encyclopedia of
Homosexuality. pg. 52

^ "Within
the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to
anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties...But the
movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible
with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general
and state power in particular...By the late sixties, political protest was
intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and
all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with
other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among
radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather
Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara
Epstein

^ London
Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968
International Institute of Social History, Accessed 19 January 2010

^ Short history of the IAF-IFA A-infos news project, Accessed
19 January 2010

^ McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority.
Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 10. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2.

^ a
b
Williams, Leonard (September 2007). "Anarchism
Revived". New Political Science 29 (3): 297–312. doi:10.1080/07393140701510160.

^
David Graeber and Andrej Grubacic, "Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first
Century", ZNet. Retrieved 2007-12-13. or Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej(2004)Anarchism, Or The
Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century Retrieved
2010-07-26

^ a
b
c
Rupert, Mark (2006). Globalization and
International Political Economy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers. p. 66. ISBN 0-7425-2943-6.

^ Anarchism, The New Encyclopedia
of Social Reform (1908).

^ Harrison,
Kevin and Boyd, Tony. Understanding Political Ideas and Movements.
Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251.

^
Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The
Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell
Publishing.

^ Wayne
Gabardi, review of Anarchism by David Miller, published in
American Political Science Review Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp.
300-302.

^ Klosko,
George. Political Obligations. Oxford University Press 2005. p. 4.

^ Avrich,
Paul. Anarchist
Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. Princeton University
Press, 1996, p. 6.

^ Esenwein,
George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain,
1868–1898" [p. 135].

^ "A member
of a community," The Mutualist; this 1826 series criticised Robert
Owen's proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly
from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Wilbur,
Shawn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?".

^ Proudhon,
Solution to the Social Problem, ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press,
1927), p. 45.

^ Proudhon,
Pierre-Joseph (1979). The Principle of Federation. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-5458-7.
"The notion of anarchy in politics is just as rational and positive as
any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from
political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social
order."

^
"Communism versus Mutualism", Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and
Financial Fragments. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) William
Batchelder Greene: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive
the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being
exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and
so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has
earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the
community of which he is an individual member."

^ Avrich,
Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America,
Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN
0-691-04494-5, p.6
Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought,
Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN
0-631-17944-5, p. 11.

^
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. What Is Property? Princeton, MA: Benjamin R.
Tucker, 1876. p. 281.

^
"What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral doctrine
which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals
only to the individual conscience."Mini-Manual of Individualism by Han Ryner

^
"I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a
condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is
conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned
by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in Individual Liberty

^ Everhart,
Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the
State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982.
p. 115.

^ Adams,
Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.

^ Godwin, William (1796)
[1793]. Enquiry Concerning
Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners. G.G.
and J. Robinson. OCLC 2340417.

^
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

^
Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to
Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.

^
Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press,
2006, p. 99.

^ a
b
Max Stirner entry by David
Leopold in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006-08-04

^ The
Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia
Corporation. p. 176.

^ Miller,
David. "Anarchism." 1987. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political
Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.

^ "What my
might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel
myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as
I entitle, that is, empower myself to take..." In Ossar, Michael. 1980.
Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller. SUNY Press. p. 27.

^
Nyberg, Svein Olav. "max stirner". Non Serviam. http://www.nonserviam.com/stirner/philosophy/index.html. Retrieved 2008-12-04.

^
Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx and the
Anarchists. London: Routledge/Kegan Paul. p. 142. ISBN 0-7102-0685-2.

^
Carlson, Andrew (1972). "Philosophical Egoism: German Antecedents". Anarchism in
Germany. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-0484-0. http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/carlson.html. Retrieved 2008-12-04.

^
Palmer, Brian (2010-12-29) What do anarchists want
from us?, Slate.com

^
William Bailie, [8] Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist — A
Sociological Study, Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20

^
Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American
Individualism by Eunice Minette Schuster

^
"2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction" in Social Anarchism or
Lifestyle Anarchism - An Unbridgeable Chasm

^ a
b
c
d
e
The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy
McElroy

^ "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español
durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923-1938)" by Xavier
Díez

^ "Los
anarco-individualistas, G.I.A...Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX
Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se pr odujo cuando un sector de anarquistas de
tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria
del pacto asociativo" clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa
Anarchica) . Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de
veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera
defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de
intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el
sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión
de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había
de comenzar en el seno del movimiento""El movimiento libertario en Italia" by Bicicleta. REVISTA DE
COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977

^ a
b
"Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el
naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de
asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo.
Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la
legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente esta especie
de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista con esta
heterogeneidad de prácticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados,
que será el impulsor de la revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo
Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la
más destacada de las cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida.""La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español
durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923-1938)" by Xavier
Díez

^
"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et
intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage
que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en
ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence).""Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak

^ a
b
c
Wendy McElroy. "The
culture of individualist anarchist in Late-nineteenth century America"

^ Xavier Diez. El anarquismo individualista en España
(1923-1939) Virus Editorial. 2007. pg. 143

^
The "Illegalists", by Doug Imrie (published by Anarchy:
A Journal of Desire Armed)

^
Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15

^ "This
does not mean that the majority thread within the anarchist movement is
uncritical of individualist anarchism. Far from it! Social anarchists have
argued that this influence of non-anarchist ideas means that while its
"criticism of the State is very searching, and [its] defence of the rights of
the individual very powerful," like Spencer it "opens . . . the way for
reconstituting under the heading of 'defence' all the functions of the State."
Section G – Is individualist anarchism capitalistic? An Anarchist FAQ

^ Ostergaard,
Geoffrey. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell
Publishing, 1991. p. 21.

^ Morris,
Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p.
76.

^ Rae,
John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard
University. p. 261.

^ a
b
Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54.

^ Avrich,
Paul. 2006. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America.
AK Press.
p. 5.

^ Kropotkin, Peter (2007). "13". The Conquest of
Bread. Edinburgh: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-904859-10-9.

^ Bakunin, Mikhail (1990). Statism and Anarchy.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36182-6.
"They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship – their
dictatorship, of course – can create the will of the people, while our
answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of
self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it;
freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on
the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the
bottom up."

^ Guillaume, James
(1876). "Ideas on Social Organization". http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm.

^ "Chapter 41: The “Anarchists”" in The Great French Revolution
1789-1793 by Peter Kropotkin

^ Nunzio
Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864 - 1892", pp. 111-113, AK Press 2009.

^
"Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam

^
Puente, Isaac."Libertarian Communism". The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist
Review. Issue 6 Orkney 1982.

^ Miller.
Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing
(1991) ISBN
0-631-17944-5, p. 12.

^ Graeber, David and
Grubacic, Andrej. Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The
Twenty-first Century.

^
Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88.

^
"Towards the creative Nothing" by Renzo Novatore

^
"Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual
liberty — provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty,
Anarchy...Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of
association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a
few hours of work instead of a day's work." "Communism and Anarchy" by Peter Kropotkin

^ This
other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and
free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas
develop in perfect harmony.Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists by
Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)

^ "I see
the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt
and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the
exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept
them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle.""MY
PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12

^ Berry,
David, A History of the French Anarchist Movement, 1917–1945 p.
134.

^ a
b
Iain Mckay, ed (2008). "Are there
different types of social anarchism?". An Anarchist FAQ.
Stirling: AK
Press. ISBN 1-902593-90-1.
OCLC 182529204. http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA3.html#seca32.

^ Anarchosyndicalism by Rudolf Rocker. Retrieved
7 September 2006.

^ Perlin,
Terry M. Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Books, New Brunswick,
NJ 1979

^ Edward
Stringham, Anarchy, State, and Public Choice, Cheltenham, UK:
Edward Elgar, 2005.

^ David
Pepper (1996). Modern Environmentalism p. 44. Routledge.

^ Ian Adams
(2001). Political Ideology Today p. 130. Manchester University
Press.

^
"Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related.""Anarchism - Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion
para el Desarrollo Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid. Published on Revista
ADN. Winter 2003

^
EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890-1939) by
Jose Maria Rosello

^ Christoyannopoulos,
Alexandre (2010). Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the
Gospel. Exeter: Imprint Academic. pp. 2–4. "Locating Christian
anarchism...In political theology"

^
""Anarchism,
insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black". Ainfos.ca.
2006-07-19. http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ Joanne E.
Passet, "Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism," in:
Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, James Philip Danky and Wayne A.
Wiegand, eds., Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; pp.
229–250.

^
"Free Society was the principal English-language forum for anarchist
ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." Emma
Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902-1909, p.551.

^ Sochen,
June. 1972. The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village 1910–1920. New
York: Quadrangle.

^ Katz,
Jonathan Ned. Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.
(New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976)

^
Molyneux, Maxine (2001). Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America
and beyond. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 24. ISBN 9780333786772. http://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24.

^ a
b
"E. Armand and "la
camaraderie amoureuse" – Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against
jealousy" (PDF). http://www.iisg.nl/womhist/manfreuk.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ a
b
c
"william godwin and informal education" by infed

^ Political Justice by
William Godwin

^ "Where
utopian projectors starting with Plato entertained the idea of
creating an ideal species through eugenics and education and a set of
universally valid institutions inculcating shared identities, Warren wanted to
dissolve such identities in a solution of individual self-sovereignty. His
educational experiments, for example, possibly under the influence of the
swiss educational theorist Johann Heinrich
Pestalozzi (via Owen), emphasized - as we
would expect - the nurturing of the independence and the conscience of
individual children, not the inculcation of pre-conceived values."Introduction of The Practical Anarchist: Writings of Josiah
Warren" by Crispin Sartwell

^ ""The
False Principle of our Education" by Max Stirner". Tmh.floonet.net. http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/falseprinciple.html. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ a
b
Geoffrey C. Fidler (Spring/Summer 1985). "The
Escuela Moderna Movement of Francisco Ferrer: "Por la Verdad y la Justicia"".
History of Education Quarterly (History of Education Society) 25
(1/2): 103–132. doi:10.2307/368893. JSTOR 368893.

^ "Francisco Ferrer's Modern School". Flag.blackened.net. http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html. Retrieved 2010-09-20.

^ Chapter
7, Anarchosyndicalism,
The New Ferment. In Murray Bookchin, The Spanish anarchists: the heroic
years, 1868–1936. AK Press, 1998, p.115. ISBN
1-873176-04-X

^ a
b
c
d
"The Emergence of Compulsory Schooling and Anarchist Resistance"
by Matt Hern

^ Wilson, A.N. (2001). Tolstoy. Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc..
p. xxi. ISBN 0393321223. http://books.google.com/books?id=imYmH8myBUsC&pg=PR19.

^ Purkis, Jon (2004). Changing Anarchism.
Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8.

^ Andrew
Vincent (2010) Modern Political Ideologies, 3rd edition, Oxford,
Wiley-Blackwell p.129

^ Suissa, Judith (September/October 2005). "Anarchy in the classroom". The New Humanist
120 (5). http://newhumanist.org.uk/1288/anarchy-in-the-classroom.

^ Illich, Ivan (1971). Deschooling Society. New
York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-012139-4.

^ Ted
Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, Oxford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.

[edit]
Further reading

Anarchism:
A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas. Robert Graham, editor.

Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939) Black Rose
Books, Montréal and London 2005. ISBN
1-55164-250-6.

Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006) Black Rose Books,
Montréal 2007. ISBN
978-1-55164-311-3.

Anarchism, George Woodcock
(Penguin Books, 1962). OCLC 221147531.

Anarchy: A Graphic Guide, Clifford Harper
(Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and
illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork.

The Anarchist Reader, George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977;
ISBN
0-00-634011-3): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and
activists including Proudhon, Kropotkin, Bakunin, Malatesta, Bookchin, Goldman, and many
others.

Anarchism: From Theory to Practice by Daniel Guerin. Monthly
Review Press. 1970. ISBN
0-85345-175-3

Anarchy through the times by Max Nettlau. Gordon Press.
1979. ISBN
0-8490-1397-6

Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism by Peter
Marshall. PM Press. 2010. ISBN
1-60486-064-2

People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy (2nd ed.) by
Harold Barclay, Left
Bank Books, 1990 ISBN
1-871082-16-1

The Political Theory of Anarchism by April Carter. Harper
& Row. 1971. ISBN
978-0-0613-6050-3

Sartwell, Crispin (2008). Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political
theory. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791474471. http://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C.

[edit]
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